Linguistics I (alle Definitionen)

Study of speech sounds --> articulation, transmission & reception

Abstract sounds

• air stream passes through mouth without any obstacle
• a, e, i, o, u

Sounds face obstacles (speech organs) --> modified

Sounds produced with your lungs vs. sounds produces without your lungs

• Egressive: sound while breathings out
• Ingressive: sound while breathing in 

• Voiced: vocal cords vibrate while producing the sound
• Voiceless: vocal cords further apart --> no vibration

• Articulatory phonetics: describes sounds with respect to the way they are produced (e.g. speech organs)
• Auditory phonetics: investigates the way in which speech sounds are perceived in the ear
• Acoustic phonetics: studies the physical properties of sound (e.g. frequency)

• oral = mouth
• nasal = nose [n]; [m]; [ᶇ] ...
• nasalized = mouth + nose

• Air stream is held up, sudden release of air
• [p]; [pʰ]; [t]; [tʰ]; [k]; [kʰ]; [b]; [d]; [g]; [ʔ]

• Articulartory organs are close together
• friction of air produces sounds
• [s]; [z]; [f]; [v]; [ɵ]; [ᵭ]; [ʃ]; [ʒ]; [h]

• Plosive with friction during release stage
• [ʧ]; [ʤ]

• Partial closure so air stream can escape on one/both sides of obstruction
• [l]

• Contraction of tongue
• air stream can escape without friction
• [r]; [w]; [j]

Little energy while speaking (voiced)

High energy while speaking (voiceless)

• Short airstream following the articulation
• ʰ is indicating aspiration
•  [pʰ]; [tʰ]; [kʰ]

• /i:/ - Bee - close front
• /ɜ:/ - Bird - mid central
• /a:/ - Starling - open back
• /ɔ:/ - Horse - mid back
• /u:/ - Goose - close back

• /ɪ/ - Fish - mid-close front-central
• /e/ - Egg - mid front
• /ᴂ/ - Apple - open front
• /ᴀ/ - Butter - mid-open central
• /ɒ/ - Olive - open back
• /ʊ/ - Pudding - close back
• Special case: Scha e /ə/ - America - mid central

• Stress: amount of energy in the production of a syllable
• Pitch change: falling/rising/falling-rising tone
• Intonation: variation of pitch
• Rhythm: stress-timed & syllable-timed languages

Idealized vowels who subdevide the vowel diagram

Where the sounds are made

• lips
• [pʰ]; [p]; [b]; [m]

• lower lip & upper teeth
• [f]; [v]

• tongue & upper teeth
• [ɵ]; [ᵭ]

• tips & rims of tongue, upper alveolar ridge & side teeth
• [tʰ]; [t]; [d]; [s]; [z]; [n]; [l]

• tip, blade & rims of the tongue, upper alveolar ridge & side teeth
• [r]

• tip, blade & rims of the tongue, upper alveolar ridge & side teeth
• [ʃ]; [ʒ]; [ʧ]; [ʤ]

• tongue & soft palate
• [kʰ]; [k]; [g]; [ᶇ]

• vocal cords
• [ʔ]; [h]

• units which consist of 1+ phones e.g. words
• Structure: Onset - peak/nucleus - coda --> Peak is the central & usually most sonorous element of the syllable
• Open syllables: end on vowels
• Closed syllables: end on consonant

• Speakers knowledge of the sounds system of the language
• Studies how these sounds combine & how they change in combination & which sounds can contrast to produce differen meaning

Smallest linguistic unit

• Phonemes can be devided into allophones --> phonetic realizations of a phoneme
• e.g. /t/ --> [tʰ]; [t]

• [pʰ]; [tʰ]; [kʰ] --> initial position in accented syllables (strong aspiration)  --> e.g. peach [pʰi:tʃ]; teach [tʰi:tʃ]; keep [kʰi:p]
• [p]; [t]; [k] --> In all other positions with no/weak aspiration --> e.g. speak [spi:k]; respect [rɪ'spekt]

• [l] clear l --> before vowels & /j/ --> e.g. language [lᴂᶇgwɪʤ]; English ['ɪᶇglɪʃ]
• [ɫ] dark l --> before consonants, at the end of words --> e.g. bulk [bʌɫk]; will [wɪɫ]

• Words which are phonetically identical except for one sound
• E.g. peach [pʰi:tʃ] & teach [tʰi:tʃ]; cup [kʌp] & cap [kᴂp]; light [laɪt] & line [laɪn]

No change in articulation at all

e.g. Right & Write; Be & Bee

2 changes in articulation

e.g. toast & boat

• Smallest abstract linguistic unit that serves to carry meaning 
• Can be devided into allomorphs --> phonological realizations of a morpheme
• Morph: Phonetic realization of a morpheme

• /t/ --> After voiceless consonants except /t/ --> e.g. worked, picked
• /d/ --> After vowels & voiced consonants except /d/ --> e.g. allowed, seemed, loved, used
• /ɪd/ --> After /t,d/ --> e.g. insisted, decided

• /s/ --> After voiceless consonants except /s, ʃ, tʃ/ --> e.g. critics, shapes, moments
• /z/ --> After vowels & voiced consonants except /z, ʒ, dʒ/ --> e.g. contours, shoes, paintings, coastlines
• /ɪz/ --> After /s, ʃ, tʃ, z, ʒ, dʒ/ --> e.g. references

• Free: simple words, that occur on their own --> e.g. {He}; {call}; {animal}; {again}; ...
• Bound: Must be combined with another morph                               --> Prefixes: {un-}; {dis-}; {in-}; ...                                                              --> Suffixes: {-s}; {-ed}; {-ness}; {-ly}; ...                        

• Lexical: Lexical content, that changes the meaning                            --> Meaning change: {un-}{bound}                                                          --> Wordclass change: {love}{-ing}
• Grammatical: Grammatical forms & relations                                      --> {-s}: dogs, cats                                                                                     --> {-ing}: singing, dancing

• Derivational: New words = bound lexical morphemes
• Inflectional: Distinction between grammatical forms of one word = bound grammatical morphemes

Morpheme to which a bound morpheme is attached

E.g.:

--> agree + bound morpheme {dis-} = disagree

--> bathroom + bound morpheme {-s} = bathrooms

Single free morphemes that are not affixes

E.g.: agree, bath, room, over, her, ... 

The occurence of an allomorph depends on the perceding phoneme e.g. {S}: /s/; /z/; /ɪz/

Wether nound take the {S}-plural or verbs take the {D}-past tense or not --> e.g. phenomenon => phenomena; hide => hid

Morphs that represent 2 different morphemes, usually a vowel change/formal resemblance

--> begin {began}

--> teeth {tooth}

--> play {played}

Elements which occur only once in the language 

--> cranberry {cran-}

--> raspberry {rasp-}

Verb forms with no formal resemblance

--> to be & was

--> to go & went

Identical verb forms & singular + plural forms (invisible affix)

--> put (present) - put (past)

--> sheep (singular) - sheep (plural)

The way in which words are formed

Counting every occurence of every word

Counting every word but only once 

E.g. 2x same word --> 2 Token & 1 Type

Abstract unit which represents different word forms & lexical units

Different representation of the same lexeme 

E.g. University, Universities, University's

Most words (lexemes) have more than one meaning/sense --> every meaning

E.g. University as a building vs. University as an organisation

A new word formed by combining 2 elements, at least one free morpheme

--> handbag {hand}{bag}

--> fireworks {fire}{work}{-s}

--> Star Wars {Star}{War}{-s}

• Prefixation: Combining a bound morpheme (prefix) with a free morpheme --> unkind {un-}; invincible {in-}
• Suffixation: Combining a bound morpheme (suffix) with a free morpheme --> honestly {-ly}; writer {-er}

New word is formed without any formal change, but the word class changes --> Zero-derivation {ᴓ} --> new word by addition of zero-morpheme

--> work (noun) - work (verb)

--> water (noun) - water (verb)

--> love (noun) - love (verb)

Taking off a sequence of phonemes, which resemble a suffix

--> babysitter - to babysit

--> revision - to revise

--> television - to televise

--> lazy - laze

Shortening a word & combining it with an affix {-y}; {-ie}

--> telly {television}

--> comfy {comfortable}

Shortening a polysyllabic word, often to a single syllable

--> labroratory - lab

--> gasoline - gas

--> advertisement - ad

--> application - app

New word from 2 existing words by maintaining elements of both constituents

--> smog (smoke + fog)

--> Brangeline (Brad + Angelina)

--> sportk (spoon + fork)

Shortening a compound using the initial letters of the words (acronym) & pronouncing it as one word

--> PIN (Personal identification number)

--> NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)

Shortening a compound by using the initial letters of the words which are pronounced seperately

--> VIP (Very important person)

--> EU (European Union)

Ablaut & rhyme combinations, like the words repeating themselves 

--> Holy-Moley

--> Okey-Dokey

--> Wishy-washy

How likely will you use the certain word formation

• Unlikely: e.g. Suffix {-th} --> Growth; Truth
• Very likely: e.g. {-ness} --> darkness, smoothness; {-ation} --> decoration, information

Deals with the linguistic units we use to speak 

• Prefabs: Unit used when speaking (Collocation + idiom)
• Collocations: Connection of 2+ words
• Idioms: Unit of meaning
• Statistically significant collocations: Co-occurences of words (frequency)
• Institutionalized collocations: Fixed compounds (norm phenomena)

Collocations that occur more frequently (associations)

--> sell - house

--> full - moon

--> enter - room

--> I beg you - pardon

Fixed compounds

• unpredictable --> don't make sense, e.g. strong tea

--> white wine (vs. yellow wine)

--> dishwasher (vs. washing-up machine)

Combination of 2+ words which function as one unit of meaning/ multi-word-lexeme --> Constituents alone don't give any hint about the meaning of the unit

• lexically stable --> e.g. have/got a screw loose; with a screw loose
• Can be shortened --> (the) early bird (catches the worm)
• Allow syntactic modification --> scratch one's heas; head scratching

• Noun phrases: the wind of change
• Predicates: to have 2nd thoughts
• Sentences: The early bird catches the worm
• Phrasal verbs: to come up with

• Deals with the linguistic units of the sentence. (Clause = Satzteil)
• Syntax: Sentence > Clause > Phrase > Word > Morpheme > Phoneme > Phone

• Direct object: [Od] (affected by action) --> Either only object in a sentence; in a sentence with 2 objects always after indirect Object
• Indirect object: [Oind] (receiver of action) --> Comes before a direct object, can be replaced by a personal pronoun

• Subject complement: [Cs] --> John was a teacher. (further information on subject = John)
• Object complement: [CO] --> My friends consider me loyal. (further information of object = me)

Deals with the meaning of words

The Linguistic Sign:

• Form (Signifiant): Morphology --> /tri:/
• Meaning (Signifié): Semantics --> tree

1. Linearity of the Form (Linear) --> Sounds always produced in the same order (left to right)
2. Conventionality --> Form & Meaning are linked to the speech community --> Individual can't change
3. Arbitrariness --> Concepts between speech communities don't have any connections, e.g. tree vs. Baum

• Dictionary definition of the word
• E.g. Fruit: Something that grows on a plant, can be eaten as food & contains seed.
• BUT: doesn't always have the same sense --> E.g. "The fruit of her hard work was a well-deserved promotion."

An existing object/person referred to by a word.

E.g. Island

• Denotatum (Island): "All islands that exist in speakers reality"
• Denotation: Relationship between a linguistic sign & its denotatum

Any linguistic expression (phrase) with the purpose to refer to sth (object, person, event, ...)

--> Referent: The Object, Person, ... referred to

--> Reference: Relationship between the Phrase & Referent

Associations speaker has with a word beyond it's meaning

--> Vary because of cultural, historical & individual aspects

• E.g. Island --> Connotations: Sea, Sun, Beach

One lexeme has multiple related Meanings --> same ethymological root

• Form = Meaning 1 + Meaning 2
• E.g. University = Institution + Building

2 different lexemes have identical form --> different ethymological root 

• Form 1 (e.g. match i.S.v. Steichholz)
• Form 2 (e.g. match i.S.v. Sportevent)

• Hyperonym/Superordinate: generic term
• Hyponymy/Subordinate: subterm --> Hyperonym (animal) can include a Hyponym (seal, dog). But not the other way around!
• Co-Hyponyms: Expressions that share a Hyperonym --> E.g. seal & dog for animal

2 different lexemes with the same/similar meaning, e.g. good & great

Views different perspectives on one action

E.g. Above <--> Below; Give <--> Receive; Lend <--> Borrow

Opposites but scalable; range of things in between

E.g. Hard & Easy, Warm & Cold, Small & Big; Heavy & Light

Non-scalable; either/or; nothing in between

E.g. True & False, Dead & Alive

Purely language internal approach to discover semantic properties of lexical units

Set of wordds with similar grammatic & the sam etymological roots

1. Atomic: Impossible to split up into further semantic components, e.g. Human, Female
2. Recurrent: Can cover the meaning of multiple lexical units; e.g. Human: man, boy, girl, ...
3. Binary: +/- values --> e.g. Girl: Female +, Young +, Male -, Old -
4. Universal: Applicable to all languages

Explains syntagmatic relationships --> e.g. Wood (Animate: -) swims. (Animate +) 

• Incompatibility: Both (+ & -) can't be used at the same time
• Better: Wood (Animate: -) floats. (Animate: -)

How language is affected by the situation in which it is used, words can express things that are different from what they appear to mean

• Sense: Semantic meaning
• Force: Pragmatic meaning
• E.g. Can you open the window? --> Please open the window!

1. Quantity: Focus on the informative part
2. Quality: Only true information
3. Relation: Relevant information
4. Manner: Clear & distinct, avoid ambiguity

--> Not all conversational contributions are useful!

When someone lies/holds back informations on purpose --> Quality-Maxime

When a speaker violates one maxim in order to follow another one 

• E.g. Person A: Is it raining?; B: It might be. (B doesn't know) --> violates Quantity in order to obey Quality.

Speaker chooses to obviously fail on purpose

• E.g. A: Mrs. Smith is an old windbag!; B: It's a nice day, isn't it (Be quiet; She can hear you!)

--> Violates Relation/Relevance

To fully understand the sentence we need to know the context 

• Inference: Anything from the speaker's knowledge which is added to the stated

--> e.g. "I'm not hungry." --> Let's not eat

• Minimize expression of impolite beliefs
• Maximize expression of polite beliefs
• Goal: Greate interaction while minimizing the potential for conflict & confrontation
• E.g. A: "We all miss Tim & Perry."; B: "Well we all mis Tim." instead of "We don't moss Perry."