English in use - Sociolinguistics

Where speakers differ (or vary) at the level of pronunciation only (phonetics and
phonology), they have different accents. Their grammar may be wholly or largely the
same. Accents can index a speaker’s regional/geographic origin, or social factors such
as level and type of education, or even their attitude

A term widely applied to what are considered sub-varieties of a single language.
Generally, dialect and accent are distinguished by how much of the linguistic system
differs. Dialects differ on more than just pronunciation, i.e., on the basis of morpho-
syntactic structure and/or how semantic relations are mapped into the syntax

The identification and mapping of boundaries (isoglosses) between different varie-
ties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular, regions,
towns or villages: start second half of the nineteenth century, Georg Wenker, 1876-
1887: surveyed the dialects of German by sending out 50,000 asking them to return
them transcribed into the local dialect (45,000 were returned!), resulted in Sprach-
Atlas von Nord- und Mitteldeutschland (1881), Deutscher Sprachatlas (1927-1956)
and, more recently, Regionalsprache.de (REDE)

sociolinguistics relies on systematic and observable data collection techniques

non-linguistic factors that determine the variation, e.g.: Does the speaker come from
the UK or from India? Who are the interlocutors? Is the writer a first-language or for-
eign-language speaker? Is the situation rather formal or informal?

is the accent counterpart in the US, majority accent little or no clue about a speaker’s
geographical background, used mainly by TV and radio hosts

An indicator is a linguistic variable which shows limited style-shifting. Stratified prin-
cipally between groups. Speakers use one variant consistently and are not even
aware subconsciously that this variant may not be well understood by other speak-
ers

distribution of variants of a variable is determined by linguistic constraints, e.g.: Is
the subject of a sentence a pronoun or full NP? Does /l/ occur in the onset [l] or coda
[ɫ] of a syllable? Which sound precedes the plural morpheme {-s}? Which is the col-
lective noun for describing a unit of animals?

Language change is chaotic -> variation is ‘noise’, competition between traditional
and innovative forms, change determined only after it happened, small sample,
NORMs, questionnaires with short questions -> short answers

A marker is a variable that speakers are less aware of than a stereotype, but which
shows consistent style effects. Speakers are aware of a linguistic feature –although
often only subconsciously – and vary their speech depending on social situations

often associated with education and may function as social gatekeepers

traditional or regional dialectology was mainly interested in the ‘real dialect’, focus
on regional variation / dialects, focus on rural areas: Non-mobile, Older, Rural, Males

The double bind researchers find themselves in when what they are interested in
knowing is how people behave when they are not being observed, but the only way
to find out how they behave, is to observe them.

extrapolating evidence for a theory from what people say or write: what is the pur-
pose of using a particular linguistic feature, participant observation

inferring evidence for a theory through measurement of variables that produce nu-
meric outcomes: count data, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics

as the accent counterpart in England, spoken by about 2-5% of the English popula-
tion, historically based on the language at court

descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural
norms, expectations, and context, on language and the ways it is used

The variety of a language (usually a historically significant dialect), which has been
officially elevated to prestige status and is preferred in official document, media,
public and formal speech

A stereotype is a linguistic feature that is widely recognised and is very often the sub-
ject of (not always accurate!) dialect performances and impersonations

An abstract representation of the source of variation. Realised by two or more vari-
ants. In sociolinguistics, variables are written in brackets, e.g., (data) or (plural). Pho-
netic variables, morpho-syntactic variables, lexical variables, pragmatic variables

The actual realisation of a variable. Variants are written according to the convention
of the level of linguistics, e.g., [ˈdeɪtə] or [ˈdæt̬ə]. If the variable is non-linguistic,
write ‘as is

Variety is a relatively neutral term used to refer to languages and dialects. Avoids the
problem of drawing a distinction between the two, and avoids negative attitudes of-
ten attached to the term dialect

William Labov’s The social motivation of a sound change (1963) is considered the
founding piece of modern sociolinguistics
Variation is not chaotic -> patterns of variation are the key to understanding linguistic
change: large sample, different social backgrounds, the ‘sociolinguistic interview

England can be divided into 8 accent areas, the US into 9 areas

variety spoken by many African Americans in the US, not regionally restricted but
mainly in urban areas; features: CCR, TH-stopping, rhoticity, metathesis, monoph-
thongisation, negation with ain`t, double negation, habitual be, completive done

measured by comparing speakers of different ages in a single speech community at a
single time, relies on the assumption that speakers only minimally change the way
they speak after the critical period or in adulthood

AAVE feature: leave out the consonant: /hænd/ -> [hæn], /dɛsk/ ->
/dɛs/

regional variation, separates England in North and South, Northern speakers retain
older pronunciation of (short) u in lexical set of STRUT (bus, love, touch) and merge it
with FOOT (hood, bullet, woman) in the South FOOT and STRUD are separeate

lexical sets are written in SMALL CAPS, each stand for a large number of words which
behave the same way in respect of the incidence of vowels in different accents, can
be helpful to place an Englishperson geographically: TRAP-BATH split, FOOT-STRUT
split, realization of FACE and GOAT, RHOTICITY

after the rapid anonymous survey Labov notes down: dependent variable (“r”) which
you try to find vitiation patterns, independent variables (style, position, store, sex)
that may explain the pattern in your dependent variable (age, occupation, ethnicity)
and independent variables

stereotypical feature of American South “i” and “e” merge into one sound

method: interviewer (Labov) approached the informant in the role of a customer, he asked
for directions to a particular department or item which he knew was on the fourth floor, an-
swer would be something like On the fourth floor -> following the answer of the shop assis-
tant, he would lean forward and say ‘Excuse me?’, in the first instance, the shop assistant
would not pay much attention, in the second instance, the shop assistant would likely pro-
nounce the words more carefully

studies of variation and change also diachronic studies, real time data is not available but:
newspapers, radio, oral history archives

refers to the realization of postvocalic r (= pronounce the r) traditionally all of Britain
rhotic, now: West Country, small areas around Blackburn, Ireland and Scotland

th turns into a t/d: /θɪn/ -> [tɪn], /ðɛn/ -> [dɛn]

eletion of t in unstressed syllables when following n: – /ˈwɪnər/

t is realized flapped/voiced when they occur as the only consonant at the beginning
of an unstressed syllable and has a vowel or a sonorant consonant preceding them:
– /ˈlet̬ər/ (“ladder

regional variation, in RP and south(east), BATH set e.g. dance, stuff, ask,… are phone-
mically long and merged with PALM (= long a sound) in other parts of England a is
short (merged with TRAP)

switching is a bit like either-or VS mixing has more interpersonal or affective func-
tions than code switching, e.g. signaling proximity/ distance, in-group/out-group, re-
ferring to concepts (e.g. Erasmus students still getting a ‘Schein’)
Code mixing generally refers to alternations between varieties, or codes, within a
clause or phrase. Often elicits more strongly negative evaluations than alternations
or code switching across clauses

people who speak two or more languages or varieties are usually well aware in which
situation to use which language: in more formal situations use the standard (H) vari-
ety or official language and in less formal situations use the dialect or community (L)
language; code switching may be influenced by: Domain – Where are you (social or
physical setting)? Or Situation – Who do you speak to

can (but do not have to) have a pidgin in their ancestry but are full-fledged languages
in their own right -> are fullfledged languages on par with any other language in the
world, and are capable of fulfilling any linguistic need of the relevant speech commu-
nity”, i.e., they are not in any way restricted in function

1940s-1970s, English had developed for about 1,500 years and spread beyond the
British Isles for approximately 350 years

a stage in the development of a language variety, often in the context of dialect for-
mation or language change, integral part of the dynamic nature of language, reflect-
ing how social and environmental factors shape linguistic evolution, helps trace the
origins and development of dialects and languages over time

frequent phenomenon (Switzerland: Schwyzerdütsch – High German, Spain: Catalan
– Castillian, Singapore: Singlish – Singapore English, Jamaica: Patwa – Jamaican Eng-
lish, Arabic countries: Local dialects – Modern Standard Arabic) -> Classically defined
as a situation where two closely related languages [or dialects] are used in a speech
community. One for High (H) functions (e.g. church, newspapers) and one for Low (L)
functions (e.g. in the home or market). The situation is supposed to be relatively sta-
ble and the languages/varieties remain distinct. Now often extended to refer to any
two languages (even typologically unrelated ones) that have this kind of social and
functional distribution

• varieties of English having emerged in colonial
contexts essentially go through the same evo-
lutionary cycle, caused by the social dynamics
between the two parties involved in a coloni-
sation process:
• IDG (indigenous) strand and STL (settler) strand
• The strands start out as being completely separated before gradually converging,
intertwining, gradually assimilating
• This has important linguistic consequences: Gradual linguistic accommodation, Set
of shared features and norms, Single speech community
Parameters
• Extralinguistic factors: historical events, political situation; STL: colonial expansion,
trade, emigration, missionary activities; IDG: occupation, loss of/sharing territory,
trade
• Identity constructions: of all partied involved; STL strand; IDG strand
• Sociolinguistics: language contact/ use and attitudes; STL : cross dialect contact,
limited exposure to local language; IDG: minority bilingualism
• Structural effects: linguistic variants, emerging varieties; STL: toponymic borrowing

Diglossia: situation where 2 closely related languages/ dialects are used in speech
community: H = High functions e.g. in church newspaper, standard high variety

Diglossia: situation where 2 closely related languages/ dialects are used in speech
community: L = Low functions e.g. home/marked, dialect/ community language

in most parts of the world, it is completely common that languages co-exist side-by-
side -> language contact resulting in bi- or multilingual speakers; languages in contact
influence each other, borrowings are among the most common outcome, transfer,
i.e., words, sounds, even grammatical structures are taken over from one language
to another, contact has played a major role in the history of English

language that provides most of the vocabulary, usually superstrate language

is a notoriously difficult concept: a person able to speak more than one language, or
the situation in which speakers can and do speak more than one language

• are languages that emerge in extreme (!) language contact situations between
speakers of at least two mutually unintelligible languages; usually restricted to par-
ticular social interactions, e.g. Trade, Work, Plantation, On ships
• goal is basic communication, not acquiring a native-like competence on either side,
show features of both languages, usually strongly simplified phonetically and gram-
matically
• not ad hoc languages, i.e., their structure must be learned, extended contact be-
tween groups necessary for pidgin to develop, mutual unintelligibility of languages
involved, NOT an imperfectly learned second language

from sub (below) and stratum: language(s) with lower social status / less prestige in a
contact situation; likely to influence structure/ use of resulting pidgin/ creole

from super (above) and stratum (layer): language of power in a language contact
situation; often higher social status / more prestige, i.e., the language of the more
powerful group

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