Linguistics 1a

-Speaking in tongues
-the phenomenon of (apparently) speaking in an unknown language, especially in religious worship. It is practised especially by Pentecostal and charismatic Christians

Words that sound similar to the noises they describe

Human teeth:
-are upright
-roughly even in hight
-good for grinding and chewing
-helpful in making sounds like /f/ and /v/

Human lips:
-more intricate muscle interlacing
-Help with making sounds like /p/ /b/ and /m/

Mouth:
-is small compared to others
-can be opened and closed rapidly
-part of an extended vocal tract

Tongue:
-humans have a shorter, thicker and more muscular tongue
-can be used to shape a wide variety of sounds inside the oral cavity

Larynx:
-upright posture moved the head more directly above the spinal column and the larynx dropped to a lower position
--> makes it more possible for humans to choke

Pharynx:
-increases range and clarity of a sound produced by the larynx

Human brain:
-it is lateralized
-speaking and object manipulation are very close to each other in the left hemisphere of the brain

Innateness Hypothesis:
-enhanced blood flow in the brain, creating conditions for a bigger and more complex brain to develop
-... weiter machen mit definition

Communicative signals:
-Use language to tell a person something intentionally

informative signals:
- someone listening to you may become informed about you through a number of signals that you have not intentionally sent
E.g are you have a cold ( because you sneezed) or you are disorganized (non-matching socks)

Reflexivity:
-use of language to think and talk about language itself

Displacement:
- Humans can refer to past and future time
- It allows us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot even be sure of

Arbitrariness:
- The aspect of the relationship between words and objects

--> The words fitting the concept they indicate

- The process of a language being passed on from one generation the the next

- Humans are always able to produce new words and expressions to describe new objects and situations

- Lack of productivity ( in animal communication)

- The signal in the communication system of other creatures seems to be fixed

- Human Language is organized at two levels simultaneously

- physical level: we produce individual sounds
e.g. n, b, i
--> At another level we put them in combination like bin which has a different meaning as the combination in nib

=> At one level we have distinct sounds and at the other we have distinct meanings

--> Among other creatures each communicative signal appears to be a single fixed form that cannot be broken down into separate parts

- Phonetics is the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds

-Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made

-Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air

-Auditory phonetics deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds

- To make a consonant sound we start with the air pushed out by the lungs up through the windpipe to the larynx, inside it are the vocal cords (folds)

Voiceless sounds --> When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them with no obstruction
=> e.g. S or F, no vibration

Voiced sounds --> When the vocal cords are drawn together, the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through
=> e.g. Z or V, vibration

- They are made with both lips

--> Voiceless consonants: p

--> Voiced consonants: b, m, w

Page 32

- Formed using the upper front teeth and the lower lip

--> Voiceless: f

--> Voiced: v

Page 32

- We raise the front of the tongue to the alveolar ridge to make these sounds

--> Voiceless: t, s
--> Voiced: d, z, r, l, n

Page 32

- The teeth are involved in creating these sounds

--> Voiceless: "theta" e.g. thin, wrath
--> Voiced: "eth" e.g. thus, feather, loathe

- Sounds made with the tongue tip between the teeth (Interdentals)

Page 32

- Sounds made in the middle area of the mouth, involving the tongue and the palate(roof of the mouth)

--> Voiceless: "Sh", "ch" e.g. shout, child

--> Voiced: "3" => treasure, rouge
"d3" => judge, George
"y", /j/ => yes, yo-yo, lawyer

Page 32

- Sounds produced toward the back of the mouth, involving the velum

--> Voiceless: k => kick
--> Voiced: phonetic g => gag , ..

Page 32

- Consonant sound produced without the active use of the tongue
--> Voiceless
--> Glottis is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx

--> e.g. h => have, hold, who

Page 32

- Produced by blocking the airflow very briefly, then letting it go abruptly

--> e.g. t, p
=> pop

More on page 33

- Produced by almost blocking the airflow, then letting the air escape through a narrow gap

--> e.g. f, s, h

More on page 33

- Produced when the space between the vocal cords (glottis) is closed completely very briefly, then released

--> e.g. saying bottle, butter without the tt part

Page 34

- Sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly

--> e.g. pronounce the word butter like "budder"
=> t to d

Page 34

- Produced with a relatively free flow of air
--> all typically voiced

- High, front = e.g. heat, hit (made with the front part of the tongue in a raised position)

- low = e.g. hat

- low, back = e.g. hot

Page 35

Diphthongs: - Sounds that consists of a combination of two vowel sounds
--> When we produce them, our vocal organs move from one vocalic position to another


--> See page 36 for different examples on how the movement happens in the mouth

- Called "little grape", hanging at the end of the velum

--> Is used with the back of the tongue to produce uvular sounds

=> e.g. "r" sounds: rouge, letter

- Is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language
--> It is about the underlying design, the eblueprint of each sound type, which may vary in different physical contexts

=> e.g. the /t/ sound in the word tar, star, writer, butter are in phonology the same way but in actual speech they are all different, because of the pronunciation of the letter in relation to the other sounds around them

- Meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language

--> Is described as a sound type, of which all the different spoken versions of e.g. the letter /t/ are tokens

=> e.g. /f/ and /v/ are distinct phonemes because if we change one sound in a word ( fat and vat) then that also changes the meaning

- Phonemes that have certain features in common are members of a natural class
--> e.g. /p/ and /k/ are both voiceless stops


=> more e.g. on page 46

- Different versions of a sound type regularly produced in actual speech (in the mouth) --> Phones

- A set of phones, which are versions of one phoneme --> allophones of a phoneme

=> e.g. the phoneme /t/ can be pronounced in a lot of ways,
the /t/ sound in the word "tar" is pronounced with a stronger puff of air than in the word "star"

-->page 47

- Is a puff of air while saying something

--> "tar"

- Two different pronunciations (allophones) of a sound type (phoneme), each used in different places in words

--> page 48

- When two words such as "fan" and "van" are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position

=> other examples: bat - beat, math - myth, sit - sing

- A group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme, always in the same position in the word

=> e.g. big - pig - rig - fig - dig - wig,

fat - fit - feet - fete - foot - fought

- Permitted arrangements of sounds in a language
--> Obeying some constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes

=> e.g. lig and big could be English words

- Must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs

- Onset: one or more consonants

- Rhyme: consists of a vowel and consonants

--> Nucleus: vowel, Coda: consonants

- Syllables like me, to and no have an onset and nucleus but no coda --> Open Syllables

- When coda is present: up, cup, at or hat --> Closed Syllables

- e.g. the onset and the coda consist of more than a single consonant

--> the combination of /st/ is a consonant cluster used as onset in the word stop, and as coda in the word post

=> liquids ( /l/ and/r/ )
=> glide ( /w/ )

Page 49

- Is the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound

--> that is because mostly our talk is fast and spontaneous and that requires our articulators to move from one sound to the next without stopping

- When two sound segments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or copied by the other

--> assimilation from a voiced to a voiceless sound

=> e.g. have, because "hafta" in: I have to go

Page 50
Plus 51

- Normally we would pronounce and with no nasal quality at all
--> When we say the words pin and pan in everyday talk the anticipation of the final nasal consonant makes it easier to go into the nasalized articulation in advance ( ~ ) called tilde

Page 50, more examples
Plus 51

- The process of not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunciation of a word in isolation

-> Vowels also disappear through elision

=> e.g. not pronouncing the in friendship

Page 51

- Quickly understanding a new word and accepting the use of different forms of that new word in the language

- The study of the origin and history of a word

--> Many of our technical words come to us through Latin but has its origin in Greek

- Taking over words from other languages

--> e.g. dope (Dutch)
Piano (Italian)
Yogurt (Turkish)

--> the voiced fricative /3/ became part of English through borrowed French words as "measure" and "rouge"

- A special type of borrowing. In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language

--> e.g. is the word Wolkenkratzer a calque for the English word skyscraper

--> The American concept of "boyfriend" was borrowed with a sound change into Japanese as boyifurendo bus as a calque into Chinese as "male friend"

- Combining process: A joining of two separate words to produce a single form

--> e.g. wallpaper, textbook, doorknob, fingerprint

- The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process

--> we typically take only the beginning of one word and join it to the end of the other word

=> smoke, fog: smog
Breakfast, lunch: brunch

- A word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form (fax)

=> e.g. gasoline: gas
Advertisement: ad
Brassiere: bra

- A process in which a longer word is reduced to a single syllable and then -y or -ie is added to the end

--> e.g. Barbecue: Barbie
Breakfast: brekky
Toasted sandwich: toastie

- A word of one type is reduced to form a word of another type

--> e.g. the noun television first came into use and then the verb televise was created from it
--> another example is donation: to donate

=> often you just put -er at the end, babysit --> babysitter

- A change in the function of a word, e.g. when a noun comes to be used as a verb

--> other labels for thus process: "category change" and "functional shift"

=> examples are: "butter" --> have you buttered the toast?
"Chair" --> someone has to chair the meeting

=> Some adjectives like "dirty" or "empty" have become verbs like to dirty and to empty

--> Some words can shift completely in meaning when they go through conversion

- Is the invention and general use of totally new terms, you basically trade names for commercial products and they become general terms
--> e.g. aspirin, nylon, vaseline, zipper or the most common term google

- New words based on the name of a person or a place

--> e.g. teddy bear --> from the US president Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt
--> jeans --> from a Italian city of Genoa where the type of cloth was first made

More examples on page 64

- Are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words

--> Examples: CD = Compact disk
Laser = light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
ATM, PIN,....

More examples on page 64

- The process of the most common word formation to be found in the production of new words

--> Accomplished by means of a large number of small "bits"

- Affixes: Are the small bits, They don't usually get separate listings in dictionaries

--> e.g. un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism, -ness

=> appear in words like unhappy, misrepresented, prejudge, joyful, careless, terrorism, sadness

--> The affixes at the beginning of a word (un-, mis-) are called prefixes

--> The affixes at the end of a word (-less, -ish) are called suffixes

- Also a type of affix, which is incorporated inside another word

--> e.g. Aladamnbama, Unfuckingbelievable

- New words are formed that are similar in some way to existing words
--> many of the words can have a very short life span

--> e.g "yuppie" from "hippie"

- Investigating basic forms in a language

--> Study of those basic "elements" in a language

- A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function
--> units of grammatical function include forms used to indicate past tense or plural

=> e.g. Minimal units of meaning:
re- ("again"), new ("recently made")
Grammatical function:
-ed (past tense)

More examples on page 76

- Morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words

--> Lexical morphemes: can generally be identified as the set of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
--> e.g. new and tour
=> these are treated as an "open" class of words bc we can add new lexical morphemes


--> Functional morphemes: e.g. articles (a,the), conjunctions (and, because), prepositions (on, near) and pronouns (it, me)
=> "closed" class of words bc we almost never add new functional morphemes




More on page 77 plus about "bound stems"

- Bound morphemes are those forms that cannot normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form

Derivational Morphemes: can change the grammatical category of a word --> e.g. re-, -ist, -ed, -s (teach--> teacher)

=> all affixes are bound morphemes

Inflectional Morphemes: Used to show if a word is plural or singular, past tense or not and if it is a comparative or possessive form and they never change the grammatical category of a word. --> all suffixes
=> -`s, -s, -ing, -ed, -en, -er, -est


Example:
Un- dress -ed
Prefix stem suffix
(Bound) (Free) (Bound)

Page 77, 78, 79

- The actual forms used to realize morphemes


--> e.g. cats: /kaet/ + /-s/
Lexical morpheme + an inflectional morpheme ("plural")


Page 80

- Is a variant phonetic form a morpheme, or a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning

- repeating all or part of a form

- are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas


--> proper nouns: begin with a capital letter

- are words used with nouns to form noun phrases classifying those "things" or identifying them as already known

--> e.g. a, an, the

Are words used, typically with nouns, to provide more information about the things referred to

--> e.g. large, small, beautiful

- are words used to refer to various kind of actions and states involving people and things in events

--> to jump, to dance

- are words used typically with verbs, to provide more information about actions, states and events. Some adverbs are also used with adjectives to modify information about things

--> e.g. really, very, slowly, yesterday

- are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections, involving actions and things

--> at, in, on, near, with, without

- are words used in place of noun phrases, typically referring to people and things already known

--> she, herself, they, it, you

- are words used to make connections and indicate relationships between events

--> and, but, because, when

- Agreement: e.g. the verb loves "agrees" with the noun Cathy, in the sentence Cathy loves her cat

- Number: the noun is singular or plural

- Person: covers the distinctions of fist person, second person, third person
--> describe the different forms of English pronouns

- Tense: in the e.g. it is present

- Active voice: describing what Cathy does (in the e.g.)
--> performing the action

- Passive voice: used to describe what happens to Cathy
--> she doesn't perform the action
=> e.g. Cathy is loved

- Natural gender:
female entities= she, her
male = he, his
things = it, its

Page 95

- is based on the type of noun ( masculine and feminine), it is not tied to sex

--> e.g. Spanish: el sol, la luna

--> e.g. German: der, die, das

=> masculine, feminine, neutral

More on page 96: also about English - Latin

- The claim that the structure of English sentences should be like the structure of sentences in Latin

--> Old-style prescriptive rules:

You must not split an infinitive
You must not end a sentence with a preposition
Never begin a sentence with and!



- Split infinitive: e.g. to boldly go

- One type of descriptive approach

- its main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms in a language
--> This method involves the use of "test-frames": can be sentences with empty slots in them

e.g. The _______ makes a lot of noise.

=> Pronouns don't always fit in all slots

Pronouns are used in place of noun phrases (not just nouns)

- Technique to show how small constituents (or components) go together to form larger constituents
=> builds a sentence

--> e.g. on page 99

Noun Phrase: describes the form of the expression
--> " it has a noun or a pronoun in it"


Subject: - the first noun phrase before the verb
-controls the verb ( singular or plural)
- often performs the action
- pronouns: I, he, she, we, they


Object: - the noun phrase after the verb
- no influence on verb
- often undergoes the action
- me, him, her, us, them


Adjunct: At the end of a sentence, often a prepositional phrase which provides additional information --> where, when, how

- basic linear order =
Noun Phrase - Verb - Noun Phrase

--> their typical grammatical functions are:
Subject - Verb - Object


Most common pattern is:
Subject - Object - Verb


--> examples in table on page 101

- Use of words patterns such as SVO or VOS to talk about different "types" of languages

--> the study of similarities in the grammatical structures of languages that allow them to be classified as members of the same type or group


Main Types: SVO, VOS

Other two types: OSV, OVS

Examples on page 101

- The structure and ordering of components within a sentence

--> the word "syntax" comes originally from Greek and literally means "a putting together" or "arrangement"

- can be used to generate or produce sentence structures and not just describe them

--> have a small and finite (i.e. limited) set of rules that will be capable of producing a large and potentially infinite (i.e.unlimited) number of well-formed structures

--> this type of grammar should also be capable of revealing the basis of two their phenomena:

1. how, some superficially different phrases and sentences are closely related
2. how, some superficially similar phrases and sentences are in fact different

- Surface structure: the different syntactic forms they have as individual English sentences

- Deep structure: "underlying" level, where the basic components (Noun Phrase + Verb + Noun Phrase) shared by the two sentences can be represented

--> is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented

- Sentences that have two distinct underlying interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep structure

Deep Structure sentences:
1. Annie had an umbrella and she bumped into a man with it
2. Annie bumped into a man and the man happened to be carrying an umbrella

--> put that into surface structure form =
Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella

=> e.g. for an structural ambiguity sentence


Page 115

- In syntactic Analysis we use some conventional abbreviations for the parts of speech

--> e.g. N =nouns
Art = article
Adj = adjective
V = verb
NP = noun phrase
VP = verb phrase --> consist of V and NP

Page 115

- These rules state that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more constituents in a particular order

1. Rule = a sentence rewrites as a noun phrase and a verb phrase

2. Rule = a noun phrase rewrites as either an article plus an optional adjective plus a noun, or a pronoun or a proper noun

3. Rule = a verb phrase rewrites as a verb plus a noun phrase

- specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents such as PN, N or V

--> they generate the grammatical sentences but not the ungrammatical

Page 116

- use the symbols introduced earlier to label parts of the tree when we create a representation of how each part fits into the underlying structure of phrases

- there are different levels in the analysis:

1. Level at which a constituent such as NP is represented
2. different lower level at which constituent such as N is represented

Also, usable for more complex structures of an English verb phrase (VP) --> contains V, NP: contains Art, N

Lots of examples using both structures on page 118

- The study of meaning of words and sentences,
An attempt to focus on what the words conventionally mean
--> The study of the meaning in a language


Page 130

- covers those basic, essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word

--> the type of meaning that dictionaries are designed to describe

- feelings or reactions to words that may be found among some individuals or groups but not others

...
Page 130

- Features like for example:
+ human, - boy ...
=> have been used to analyze how words in a language are connected to each other

--> can then characterize which semantic feature is required in a noun in order for it to appear as the subject of a particular verb.... page 131

Agent: - The noun phrase

--> agents are typically human, they can also be non-human entities that cause actions (e.g. a natural force, a machine, or a creature)

Theme: - The entity that is involved in or affected by the action

--> can be the entity that is simply being described

=> typically non-human, but can be human

Instrumental: If an agent fills another entity in order to perform an action --> the other entity fills the role of instrument

E.g. The boy cut the rope with an old razor and He drew the picture with a crayon

=> an old razor, a crayon are noun phrases that are being used in the semantic role of instrument


Experiencer: when a noun phrase is used to designate an entity as the person who has a feeling, perception or state
(--> fell, know, hear, or enjoy something)

--> e.g. Did you hear that noise?

=> you, the experiencer
Of hearing the theme (the noise)

Location: Where an entity is
(On the table, in the room)

Source: Where the entity moves from
(From Chicago)

Goal: Where it moves to
(To New Orleans)

--> More e.g. on page 133

- Words can have relationships with each other

Lexical relations we have are:

Synonymy, Antonymy, hyponymy

- Two or more words with very closely related meanings are called synonyms

--> not necessarily "total sameness" but "close synonyms"
--> Synonymous forms may also differ in terms of formal versus informal uses

=> e.g. almost/nearly, big/large, buy/purchase
Cab/taxi, car/automobile, couch/sofa
Handbag/purse

Antonymys interrelated are two forms with opposite meanings

E.g. alive/ dead
Big/ small

Gradable Antonymys (Opposites along a scale): useable in comparative constructions involving adjectives
--> e.g. I am smaller than you...

Non-gradeable (=complementary pairs): direct opposites
--> "negative test" = the negative of one member of a non-gradable pair does imply the other member
--> e.g. My grandparents aren't alive does mean My grandparents are dead (not like this with gradable)

Reversives one is the reverse action of the other
--> e.g. undress can be treated as the opposite of dress, but that doesn't mean "not dress"
--> it means "do the reverse of dress"

=> e.g. enter/exit, pack/unpack, raise/lower, tie/untie

- When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another --> relationship is described as hyponymy

=> e.g. animal/horse, insect/ant, flower/rose
--> when the object is a rose then it is necessary a flower, so the meaning of flower is included in the meaning of rose

Hierarchical relationship:
The higher lever (Superordinate)
Co-hyponymys are two or more words that share the same Superordinate term

--> e.g. animal is the Superordinate term of dog and cat, which are co-hyponymys of one another

-- resemblance of the clearest example

--> e.g. dove, duck, parrot, pelican are all equally co-hyponymy of the Superordinate bird but not all of them are equally good examples of the category "bird", according to some researchers

=> robin is the most characteristic instance of the category "bird"

--> more examples on page 137

Homophones: when two or more different (written) forms have the same pronunciation

--> e.g. bare/bear, meat/meet
Pail/pale, pair/pear

Homonyms: when one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings

--> e.g. bat (flying creature) - bat (used in sports)
Mole (on skin) - mole (small animal)

=> are words that have separate histories and meanings, which accidentally came to have the same form

- two or more words with the same form and related meanings

=> e.g. foot (of a person, a bed, of a mountain)
Mouth (part of a face, a cave, a river)
Run (person does, water does, colors do)

--> page 138

- Using one word to refer to their other
--> e.g. bottle/water, can/juice, king/crown

=> "he drank the whole bottle", he didn't really drink the bottle but the liquid inside

- Collocation are for example words like:
hammer --> nail
table --> chair
salt --> pepper

=> words that tend to occur with other words

- A corpus is a large collection of texts, spoken or written, typically stored as a database in a computer

--> people doing corpus linguistics can then use the database to find out how often specific words or phrases occur and what types of collocations are most common

=> some of the most common ones are:
I don't know what to do (six words)
they don't want to (four words)

- Is a listing of each occurrence of a word (or phrase) in a corpus, along with the words surrounding it

--> the word being studied is described as the "key word in context"

--> e.g. on page 140

- Study of what speakers mean, or "speaker meaning,"

--> in many ways it is the study of "invisible" meaning or how we recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said or written
--> more is always communicated than is said

--> example of the sign on page 150

- We interpret the words (the "text") in a specific situation (the "context") with pre-existing assumptions about a likely message

--> the meaning of the text is not only the words but what we think the writer intended to communicate in that context

Physical context: the location "out there" where we encounter words and phrases

Linguistic context: the surrounding words (co-text), that helps us understand what is meant

Page 151

- Deixis: "pointing" via language
--> we use it to point to people (us, them, those idiots), places (here, over there) and times (now, last week)

=> distinction between what is close to the speaker and what is not close to the speaker =
Table on page 152

Read the rest on that page!

- An act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something
--> we can use proper nouns, other nouns in phrases or pronouns

=> we can also refer to things when we are not sure what to call them (e.g the blue thing, that icky stuff)

- we can use nouns associated with things to refer to people, and use names of people to refer to things

--> an inference is additional info used by the listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant

E.g. "we saw Shakespeare in London", "The bride wore Giorgio Armani"

Anaphora ("referring back"): A distinction between how we introduce new referents (a puppy) and how we refer back to them (the puppy, it)

--> "A puppy", the first mentioned, is called the antecedent
--> "The puppy", "he", "it" are Anaphoric expressions

Cataphora reverses the antecedent- anaphora relationship by beginning with a pronoun (It), later revealing more specific information (more common in stories)
--> e.g. It suddenly appeared...a big bear was standing there


More examples on page 154

- An assumption made by the speaker (or writer)
--> what a speaker (or writer) assumes is true or known by a listener (or reader) = presupposition

=> e.g. somebody tells you "Hey your brother is looking for you", there is an obvious presupposition that you have a brother

=> Test for presuppositions that involves comparing a sentence with its negative version and compare what remains true in both e.g My car is a wreck and My car is not a wreck
--> both have the underlying presupposition (I have a car)

- can be used to mark a speakers attitude to the listener or to what is being said
--> e.g. you know, well, I mean, I don't know

More examples on page 155

Politeness: Showing awareness and consideration of another person`s face

Face- threatening act: if you say something that represents a threat to another persons self-image
--> e.g. Give me that paper!

Face-saving act: Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another's face
--> e.g. Could you pass me that paper?

Page 156

Negative face: is the need to be independent and free from imposition
--> A face-saving act that emphasizes a persons negative face will show concern about imposition
(I am sorry to bother you...)


Positive face: is the need to be connected, to being ´, to be a member of the group
--> a face-saving act that emphasizes a persons positive face will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal
(The same thing happened to me...)


The distinction between direct and indirect ways of communicating can be analyzed as different types of linguistic action, or speech acts

- Use the term Speech act to describe an action that involves language such as "requesting", "commanding", "questioning" or "informing"

--> we can define a speech act as the action performed by a speaker with an utterance

=> table on page 157 important to understand this

Direct speech act is used...
...when an interrogative structure such as Did you...? is used with the function of a question

...when you seriously want to know the answer to st
Is she wearing a wig?

...when we really don't know st and we ask for the information
Can you ride a bicycle?


Indirect speech act is used...
...when we are using an interrogative structure to make a request

...e.g. when using a declarative structure to make a request

=> whenever one of the structures in the table on page 157 is used to perform a function other than the one listed beside it on the same line

- 5 voiceless fricatives that [f], [s], [h], [ʃ], [θ]

- 4 voiced fricatives [v], [z], [ʒ], [ð]